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Canada Canada, independent nation (2001 pop。 30,007,094), 3,851,787 sq mi (9,976,128 sq km), N North America。 Canada occupies all of North America N of the United States (and E of Alaska) except for Greenland and the French islands of St。 Pierre and Miquelon。 It is bounded on the E by the Atla...全部
Canada Canada, independent nation (2001 pop。 30,007,094), 3,851,787 sq mi (9,976,128 sq km), N North America。
Canada occupies all of North America N of the United States (and E of Alaska) except for Greenland and the French islands of St。
Pierre and Miquelon。 It is bounded on the E by the Atlantic Ocean, on the N by the Arctic Ocean, and on the W by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska。
A transcontinental border, formed in part by the Great Lakes, divides Canada from the United States; Nares and Davis straits separate Canada from Greenland。
The Arctic Archipelago extends far into the Arctic Ocean。 Canada is a federation of 10 provinces-Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia-and three territories-Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and the Yukon Territory。
Canada's capital is Ottawa and its largest city is Toronto。 Other important cities include Montreal, Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary, Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Quebec。
Land Canada has a very long and irregular coastline; Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St。 Lawrence indent the east coast and the Inside Passage extends along the west coast。
The ice-clogged straits between the islands of N Canada form the Northwest Passage。 During the Ice Age all of Canada was covered by a continental ice sheet that scoured and depressed the land surface, leaving a covering of glacial drift, depositional landforms, and innumerable lakes and rivers。
Aside from the Great Lakes, which are only partly in the country, the largest lakes of North America-Great Bear, Great Slave, and Winnipeg-are entirely in Canada。
The St。 Lawrence is the chief river of E Canada。 The Saskatchewan, Nelson, Churchill, and Mackenzie river systems drain central Canada, and the Columbia, Fraser, and Yukon rivers drain the western part of the country。
Canada has a bowl-shaped geologic structure rimmed by highlands, with Hudson Bay at the lowest point。
The country has eight major physiographic regions-the Canadian Shield, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the Western Cordillera, the Interior Lowlands, the Great Lakes–St。
Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachians, the Arctic Lowlands, and the Innuitians。 The exposed portions of the Canadian Shield cover more than half of Canada。
This once-mountainous region, which contains the continent's oldest rocks, has been worn low by erosion over the millennia。
Its upturned eastern edge is indented by fjords。 The Shield is rich in minerals, especially iron and nickel, and in potential sources of hydroelectric power。
In the center of the Shield are the Hudson Bay Lowlands, encompassing Hudson Bay and the surrounding marshy land。
The Western Cordillera, a geologically young mountain system parallel to the Pacific coast, is composed of a series of north-south tending ranges and valleys that form the highest and most rugged section of the country; Mt。
Logan (19,551 ft/5,959 m) is the highest point in Canada。 Part of this region is made up of the Rocky Mts。
and the Coast Mts。, which are separated by plateaus and basins。 The islands off W Canada are partially submerged portions of the Coast Mts。
The Western Cordillera is also rich in minerals and timber and potential sources of hydroelectric power。
Between the Rocky Mts。 and the Canadian Shield are the Interior Lowlands, a vast region filled with sediment from the flanking higher lands。
The Lowlands are divided into the prairies, the plains, and the Mackenzie Lowlands。 The prairies are Canada's granary, while grazing is important on the plains。
The smallest and southernmost region is the Great Lakes–St。 Lawrence Lowlands, Canada's heartland。
Dominated by the St。 Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, the region provides a natural corridor into central Canada, and the St。
Lawrence Seaway gives the interior cities access to the Atlantic。 This section, which is composed of gently rolling surface on sedimentary rocks, is the location of extensive farmlands, large industrial centers, and most of Canada's population。
In SE Canada and on Newfoundland is the northern end of the Appalachian Mt。 system, an old and geologically complex region with a generally low and rounded relief。
The Arctic Lowlands and the Innuitians are the most isolated areas of Canada and are barren and snow-covered for most of the year。
The Arctic Lowlands comprise much of the Arctic Archipelago and contain sedimentary rocks that may have oil-bearing strata。
In the extreme north, mainly on Ellesmere Island, is the Innuitian Mt。 system, which rises to c。
10,000 ft (3,050 m)。 Canada's climate is influenced by latitude and topography。 The Interior Lowlands make it possible for polar air masses to move south and for subtropical air masses to move north into Canada。
Hudson Bay and the Great Lakes act to modify the climate locally。 The Western Cordillera serves as a climatic barrier that prevents polar air masses from reaching the Pacific coast and blocks the moist Pacific winds from reaching into the interior。
The Cordillera has a typical highland climate that varies with altitude; the western slopes receive abundant rainfall, and the whole region is forested。
The Interior Lowlands are in the rain shadow of the Cordillera; the southern portion has a steppe climate in which grasses predominate。
S Canada has a temperate climate, with snow in the winter (especially in the east) and cool summers。
Farther to the north, extending to the timberline, is the humid subarctic climate characterized by short summers and a snow cover for about half the year。
The huge boreal forest, the largest surviving remnant of the extensive forests that once covered much of North America, predominates in this region。
On the Arctic Archipelago and the northern mainland is the tundra, with its mosses and lichen, permafrost, near-year-round snow cover, and ice fields。
A noted phenomenon off the coast of E Canada is the persistence of dense fog, which is formed when the warm air over the Gulf Stream passes over the cold Labrador Current as the two currents meet off Newfoundland。
People About 40% of the Canadian population are of British descent, while 27% are of French origin。
Another 20% are of other European background, about 10% are of E or SE Asian origin, and some 3% are of aboriginal or Métis (mixed aboriginal and European) background。
In the late 1990s, Canada had the highest immigration rate of any country in the world, with more than half the total coming from Asia。
Over 75% of the total population live in cities。 Canada has complete religious liberty, though its growing multiculturalism has at times caused tensions among ethnic and religious groups。
About 45% of the people are Roman Catholics, while some 40% are Protestant (the largest groups being the United Church of Canada, Anglicans, and Presbyterians)。
English and French are the official languages, and federal documents are published in both languages。
In 1991, about 61% of Canadians cited English as their mother tongue, while 24% cited French。 Economy Since World War II the development of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has led to the creation of an affluent society。
Services now account for 66% of the GDP, while industry accounts for 31%。 Tourism and financial services represent some of Canada's most important industries within the service sector。
However, manufacturing is Canada's single most important economic activity。 The leading products are transportation equipment, pulp and paper, processed foods, chemicals, primary and fabricated metals, petroleum, electrical and electronic products, wood products, printed materials, machinery, clothing, and nonmetallic minerals。
Industries are centered in Ontario, Quebec, and, to a lesser extent, British Columbia and Alberta。
Canada's industries depend on the country's rich energy resources, which include hydroelectric power, petroleum, natural gas, coal, and uranium。
Canada is a leading mineral producer, although much of its mineral resources are difficult to reach due to permafrost。
It is the world's largest source of nickel, zinc, and uranium, and a major source of lead, asbestos, gypsum, potash, tantalum, and cobalt。
Other important mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, copper, gold, iron ore, coal, silver, diamonds, molybdenum, and sulfur。
The mineral wealth is located in many areas; some of the most productive regions are Sudbury, Ont。
(copper and nickel); Timmins, Ont。 (lead, zinc, and silver); and Kimberley, British Columbia (lead, zinc, and silver)。
Petroleum and natural gas are found in Alberta and Saskatchewan。 Agriculture employs about 3% of the population and contributes a similar percentage of the GDP。
The sources of the greatest farm income are livestock and dairy products。 Among the biggest income-earning crops are wheat, oats, barley, corn, and canola。
Canada is one of the world's leading agricultural exporters, especially of wheat。 Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta are the great grain-growing provinces, and, with Ontario, are also the leading sources of beef cattle。
The main fruit-growing regions are found in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia。
Apples and peaches are the principal fruits grown in Canada。 More than half of the total land area is forest, and Canadian timber production ranks among the highest in the world。
Fishing is an important economic activity in Canada。 Cod and lobster from the Atlantic and salmon from the Pacific have been the principal catches, but the cod industry was halted in the mid-1990s due to overfishing。
About 75% of the take is exported。 The fur industry, once vitally important but no longer dominant in the nation's economy, is centered in Quebec and Ontario。
A major problem for Canada is that large segments of its economy-notably in manufacturing, petroleum, and mining-are controlled by foreign, especially U。
S。 interests。 This deprives the nation of much of the profits of its industries and makes the economy vulnerable to developments outside Canada。
This situation is mitigated somewhat by the fact that Canada itself is a large foreign investor。
Since the free trade agreement with the United States (effective 1989), Canadian investment in U。
S。 border cities, such as Buffalo, N。Y。, has increased dramatically。 The United States is by far Canada's leading trade partner, followed by Japan and Great Britain。
Manufactured goods comprise the bulk of imports; crude petroleum and motor vehicles and parts rank high among both the nation's largest imports and exports。
Other important exports are newsprint, lumber, wood pulp, wheat, machinery, aluminum, natural gas, hydroelectric power, and telecommunications equipment。
Government Canada is an independent constitutional monarchy and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations。
The monarch of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is also the monarch of Canada and is represented in the country by the office of governor-general。
The basic constitutional document is the Canada Act of 1982, which replaced the British North America Act of 1867 and gave Canada the right to amend its own constitution。
The Canada Act, passed by Great Britain, made possible the Constitution Act, 1982, which was passed in Canada。
The document includes a Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees the rights of women and native peoples and protects other civil liberties。
The Canadian federal government has authority in all matters not specifically reserved to the provincial governments。
The provincial governments have power in the fields of property, civil rights, education, and local government。
They may levy only direct taxes。 The federal government may veto any provincial law。 Power on the federal level is exercised by the Canadian Parliament and the cabinet of ministers, headed by the prime minister。
(See the table entitled Canadian Prime Ministers since Confederation for a list of Canada's prime ministers。
) Canada has an independent judiciary; the highest court is the Supreme Court, with nine members。
The Parliament has two houses: the Senate and the House of Commons。 There are generally 104 senators, apportioned among the provinces and appointed by the governor-general upon the advice of the prime minister。
Senators may serve until age 75; prior to 1965 they served for life。 The 301 members of the House of Commons are elected, largely from single-member constituencies。
Elections must be held at least every five years。 The Commons may be dissolved and new elections held at the request of the prime minister。
There are four main political parties: the Liberal party, the Conservative party (formed in 2003 by the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative party), the Bloc Québécois (aligned with the Parti Québécois of Quebec), and the New Democratic party。
History Early History and French-British Rivalry Prior to the arrival of Europeans in Canada, the area was inhabited by various peoples who came from Asia via the Bering Strait more than 10,000 years ago。
The Vikings landed in Canada c。A。D。 1000。 Their arrival is described in Icelandic sagas and confirmed by archaeological discoveries in Newfoundland。
John Cabot, sailing under English auspices, touched the east coast in 1497。 In 1534, the Frenchman Jacques Cartier planted a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula。
These and many other voyages to the Canadian coast were in search of a northwest passage to Asia。
Subsequently, French-English rivalry dominated Canadian history until 1763。 The first permanent European settlement in Canada was founded in 1605 by the sieur de Monts and Samuel de Champlain at Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal, N。
S。) in Acadia。 A trading post was established in Quebec in 1608。 Meanwhile the English, moving to support their claims under Cabot's discoveries, attacked Port Royal (1614) and captured Quebec (1629)。
However, the French regained Quebec (1632), and through the Company of New France (Company of One Hundred Associates), began to exploit the fur trade and establish new settlements。
The French were primarily interested in fur trading。 Between 1608 and 1640, fewer than 300 settlers arrived。
The sparse French settlements sharply contrasted with the relatively dense English settlements along the Atlantic coast to the south。
Under a policy initiated by Champlain, the French supported the Huron in their warfare against the Iroquois; later in the 17th cent。
, when the Iroquois crushed the Huron, the French colony came near extinction。 Exploration, however, continued。
In 1663, the Company of New France was disbanded by the French government, and the colony was placed under the rule of a royal governor, an intendant, and a bishop。
The power exercised by these authorities may be seen in the careers of Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac, Jean Talon, and François Xavier de Laval, the first bishop of Quebec。
There was, however, conflict between the rulers, especially over the treatment of the indigenous peoples-the bishop regarding them as potential converts, the governor as means of trade。
Meanwhile, both missionaries, such as Jacques Marquette, and traders, such as Pierre Radisson and Médard Chouart des Groseilliers, were extending French knowledge and influence。
The greatest of all the empire builders in the west was Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, who descended the Mississippi to its mouth and who envisioned the vast colony in the west that was made a reality by men like Duluth, Bienville, Iberville, and Cadillac。
The French did not go unchallenged。 The English had claims on Acadia, and the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670 began to vie for the lucrative fur trade of the West。
When the long series of wars between Britain and France broke out in Europe, they were paralleled in North America by the French and Indian Wars。
The Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain Acadia, the Hudson Bay area, and Newfoundland。 To strengthen their position the French built additional forts in the west (among them Detroit and Niagara)。
The decisive battle of the entire struggle took place in 1759, when Wolfe defeated Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham, bringing about the fall of Quebec to the British。
Montreal fell in 1760。 By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France ceded all its North American possessions east of the Mississippi to Britain, while Louisiana went to Spain。
British North America The French residents of Quebec strongly resented the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which imposed British institutions on them。
Many of its provisions, however, were reversed by the Quebec Act (1774), which granted important concessions to the French and extended Quebec's borders westward and southward to include all the inland territory to the Ohio and the Mississippi。
This act infuriated the residents of the Thirteen Colonies (the future United States)。 In 1775 the American Continental Congress had as its first act not a declaration of independence but the invasion of Canada。
In the American Revolution the Canadians remained passively loyal to the British crown, and the effort of the Americans to take Canada failed dismally (see Quebec campaign)。
Loyalists from the colonies in revolt (see United Empire Loyalists) fled to Canada and settled in large numbers in Nova Scotia and Quebec。
In 1784, the province of New Brunswick was carved out of Nova Scotia for the loyalists。 The result, in Quebec, was sharp antagonism between the deeply rooted, Catholic French Canadians and the newly arrived, Protestant British。
To deal with the problem the British passed the Constitutional Act (1791)。 It divided Quebec into Upper Canada (present-day Ontario), predominantly British and Protestant, and Lower Canada (present-day Quebec), predominantly French and Catholic。
Each new province had its own legislature and institutions。 This period was also one of further exploration。
Alexander Mackenzie made voyages in 1789 to the Arctic Ocean and in 1793 to the Pacific, searching for the Northwest Passage。
Mariners also reached the Pacific Northwest, and such men as Capt。 James Cook, John Meares, and George Vancouver secured for Britain a firm hold on what is now British Columbia。
During the War of 1812, Canadian and British soldiers repulsed several American invasions。 The New Brunswick boundary (see Aroostook War) and the boundary W of the Great Lakes was disputed with the United States for a time, but since the War of 1812 the long border has generally been peaceful。
Rivalry between the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company erupted into bloodshed in the Red River Settlement and was resolved by amalgamation of the companies in 1821。
The new Hudson's Bay Company then held undisputed sway over Rupert's Land and the Pacific West until U。
S。 immigrants challenged British possession of Oregon and obtained the present boundary (1846)。 After 1815 thousands of immigrants came to Canada from Scotland and Ireland。
Movements for political reform arose。 In Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie struggled against the Family Compact。
In Lower Canada, Louis J。 Papineau led the French Canadian Reform party。 There were rebellions in both provinces。
The British sent Lord Durham as governor-general to study the situation, and his famous report (1839) recommended the union of Upper and Lower Canada under responsible government。
The two Canadas were made one province by the Act of Union (1841) and became known as Canada West and Canada East。
Responsible government was achieved in 1849 (it had been granted to the Maritime Provinces in 1847), largely as a result of the efforts of Robert Baldwin and Louis H。
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